The Pages of The Gray Wizard

Lexical Verb

8.0 lexical verb inflections

8.1 class

All ámman îar lexical verbs must be inflected for one of the following four semantic classes:

 8.1.1 state verbs

State verbs (-rth) take a patient noun that is in a certain state or condition as argument. These verbs often function as predicate adjectives or predicate nominals.

NOTE: State verbs are found exclusively in the Past Perfect, i.e. for something to be in a state, the verbal action must have been completed. For this reason, the auxiliary elieth is optional with state verbs and only appears in formal texts.

An alternative construction using a predicate adjective is possible here.

There is little or no semantic difference between these two constructions, the distinction being more one of register (the first more formal than the second) than semantics.

8.1.2 process verbs

Process (-r) verbs are used in intransitive predicates that take a patient noun that has changed its state or condition as argument. The patient argument of a process verb never acts with volition.

8.1.3 action verbs

Action (-l) verbs are used in intransitive predicates that take an agent noun that performs a certain action as argument but does not involve an overt patient.

8.1.4 action/process verbs

Action/Process (-n) verbs are used in transitive predicates that take two arguments, an agent noun that performs some action and a patient noun that has changed its state or condition.

8.2 voice

Grammatical Voice is the mechanism used in ámman îar to modify the valency or argument structure of the predicate.

An argument that increases in relative topicality is said to be promoted, while an argument that decreases in relative topicality is said to be demoted. Demoted arguments continue to play their original semantic roles, but are deemed less important.

ámman îar uses the following grammatical voice operations:

 8.2.1 active voice

In active constructions, the underlying arguments of the predicate are unmodified and required. In these constructions, the Agent is slightly more prominent then the Patient, but both must be expressed.

8.2.2 passive voice

In Passive constructions the underlying P-function argument of a transitive predicate is promoted to derived S-function of an intransitive predicate and the underlying A-function argument is demoted, but may be expressed obliquely. This construction gives topical prominence to the Patient while leaving the Agent either unexpressed or only obliquely referenced.

When the agent is unexpressed in a passive construction, it is still implied as can be seen by the valency marker on the lexical verb -o, however, the agentive inflection is not used indicating the absence of the (unexpressed) agent argument.

Note the semantic difference between the example above and the following active sentence:

"An eagle was killed" uses an Agent/Patient Valency indicating both a Patient and an implied Agent (possibly expressed obliquely) and the passive voice. "An eagle died" is in the active voice and uses a Patient Valency which allows no Agent (expressed or implied.)

When the agent is explicitly expressed the lexical verb must take the agentive inflection.

Note the difference between the example above in which the agent is expressed instrumentally and the following in which an instrument is expressed obliquely, but the agent is implied. ámman îar uses the instrumental case for both of these examples and thus can be said to make only a subtle distinction between agency and instrumentality

In the following example, the instrument has been incorporated, but unlike in English, the agent may still be expressed.

However, this remains an active construction and differs from the following only in topicality.

8.2.3 antipassive voice

In Antipassive constructions, the underlying P-function argument is demoted, but may be expressed obliquely. The underlying A-function argument goes into derived S-function. This construction gives topical prominence to the agent while rendering the patient either unexpressed or obliquely referenced. This construction is often required in order to meet pivot constraints on coordination and subordination of clauses.

The English translations here are approximations, as English does not have an Antipassive form.  Again, note that when the patient is unexpressed it remains implied as can be seen by the valency marker on the verb.

When the patient is unexpressed in an antipassive construction, it is still implied as can be seen by the valency marker on the lexical verb -o.

Note the semantic difference between the example above and the following active sentence:

The use of an Agent/Patient Valency and the passive voice in the first example indicates both an agent and an implied patient, implying that the eagle killed some specific patient although not expressed. In the second example, the use of an Agent Valency and the active voice implies that no specific patient is indicated. The former would be used when the speaker is aware of what the eagle killed, while the latter would be used when the speaker knows that the eagle has killed, but doesn"t know what it killed.

When the patient is explicitly expressed, it is expressed obliquely in the dative case and marked with the patientive predicate inflection.

 8.2.4 ambient voice

In ambient constructions the underlying S-function argument of an intransitive predicate is demoted and may not be expressed leaving no arguments, i.e. the context is universal rather than particular.

The "it" in the English translation of the ambient expression is a surface element only. There is no "it" of which the predication is made. This is distinguished from the active voice expression that has a pronominal reference to some specific patient that is hot.

8.2.5 applicative voice

In Applicative constructions the underlying oblique argument of a ditransitive predicate is promoted to derived P-function and the underlyiing P-function argument is expressed obliquely.

Note that the active form above is the canonical form for all ditransitive predicates, i.e. A=AGT / P=PAT / Obl=REF. Unlike English, the predicate must undergo a voice transformation using the Applicative Voice to change this argument structure to A=AGT / P=REF / Obl=PAT.

8.2.6 causative voice

The Causative form of a predicate imposes an agent that makes something happen. Unlike the other voice operators, the Causative adds an argument to the structure of the predicate.

Note that unlike English, the lexeme ruvo, 'to break' cannot be used causatively in active voice. Thus both of the following English sentences using active voice expressions and the same lexeme 'break' are grammatical:

However, in the corresponding ámman îar pair only the former is grammatical.

The latter must be expressed using the causative voice as above.

8.2.7 reflexive voice

The Reflexive form of a predicate deletes a P-function argument of a transitive predicate when the A- and P-function arguments both have the same referent.

Note the unusual word order of this form. In particular note that the auxiliary verb remains in place in expectation of a patientive P-function argument, but the Patientive Particle moves to sentence-final position. Note also the absence of a reflexive pronoun.

8.2.8 reciprocal voice

The Reciprocal form of a predicate deletes a P-function argument of a transitive predicate when the A-function argument consists of more than one entity that share the predicate relationship with each other.

Note the unusual word order of this form. In particular note that the auxiliary verb and the Patientive Particle precede the A-function argument that nevertheless remains in ergative case. This indicates the dual role of the single surface argument as simultaneously underlying agent (ergative case) and patient (patientive particle).